Electromagnetism is a branch of Physics, that deals with the electromagnetic force that occurs between electrically charged particles. The electromagnetic force is one of the four fundamental forces and exhibits electromagnetic fields such as magnetic fields, electric fields, and light.
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Structure. Graphene is a single layer (monolayer) of carbon atoms, tightly bound in a hexagonal honeycomb lattice. It is an allotrope of carbon in the form of a plane of sp2-bonded atoms with a molecular bond length of 0.142 nanometres.
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A numerical simulation is a calculation that is run on a computer following a program that implements a mathematical model for a physical system. Numerical simulations are required to study the behaviour of systems whose mathematical models are too complex to provide analytical solutions, as in most nonlinear systems.
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Particle physics or high energy physics is the study of fundamental particles and forces that constitute matter and radiation. The fundamental particles in the universe are classified in the Standard Model as fermions (matter particles) and bosons (force-carrying particles). There are three generations of fermions, although ordinary matter is made only from the first fermion generation. The first generation consists of up and down quarks which form protons and neutrons, and electrons and electron neutrinos. The three fundamental interactions known to be mediated by bosons are electromagnetism, the weak interaction, and the strong interaction.
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In physics, a quantum phase transition (QPT) is a phase transition between different quantum phases (phases of matter at zero temperature). Contrary to classical phase transitions, quantum phase transitions can only be accessed by varying a physical parameter—such as magnetic field or pressure—at absolute zero temperature. The transition describes an abrupt change in the ground state of a many-body system due to its quantum fluctuations. Such a quantum phase transition can be a second-order phase transition.[1] Quantum phase transitions can also be represented by the topological fermion condensation quantum phase transition, see e.g. strongly correlated quantum spin liquid. In case of three dimensional Fermi liquid, this transition transforms the Fermi surface into a Fermi volume. Such a transition can be a first-order phase transition, for it transforms two dimensional structure (Fermi surface) into three dimensional. As a result, the topological charge of Fermi liquid changes abruptly, since it takes only one of a discrete set of values.
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Neural networks of the brain form one of the most complex systems we know. Many qualitative features of the emerging collective phenomena, such as correlated activity, stability, response to inputs, chaotic and regular behavior, can, however, be understood in simple models that are accessible to a treatment in statistical mechanics, or, more precisely, classical statistical field theory. This tutorial presents the fundamentals behind contemporary developments in the theory of neural networks of rate units that are based on methods from statistical mechanics of classical systems with a large number of interacting degrees of freedom. In particular we will focus on a relevant class of systems that have quenched (time independent) disorder. In neural networks, the main source of disorder arises from random synaptic couplings between neurons. These systems are in many respects similar to spin glasses. The tutorial therefore also explains the methods for these disordered systems as far as they are applied in neuroscience. The presentation consists of two parts. In the first part we introduce stochastic differential equations in the Martin - Siggia - Rose - De Dominicis - Janssen path integral formalism. In the second part we employ this language to derive the dynamic mean-field theory for deterministic random networks, the basis of the seminal work by Sompolinsky, Crisanti, Sommers 1988, as well as a recent extension to stochastic dynamics.
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Biophysics brings quantitative, experimental and theoretical approaches from physics with biological questions and hypotheses, to study problems at and across a range of biological length scales and to understand biological systems. This includes development and use of, for example, new approaches to spectroscopy, microscopy, imaging, scattering and cell manipulation.
Soft matter physics sits at the interface between chemistry, physics and biology, and includes investigation of the structure, self-assembly, kinetics and properties of liquids, colloids, particles, formulations, gels, foams, sprays, soft solids and interfaces.
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We present the first-principles calculations of lithium-intercalated diamond-like boron compounds LiB and LiB2. Although the pristine diamond structure of boron is dynamically unstable, LiB has no imaginary phonon mode after lithium intercalation. Our calculations show that LiB is an insulator with a direct energy gap of 1.45 eV. By removing a face-centered cubic sublattice of lithium from LiB, a metallic compound LiB2 is obtained. Based on Wannier interpolation, the electron–phonon coupling in LiB2 is accurately determined. We find that LiB2 is stable above 12 GPa, with superconducting transition temperature close to 60 K.
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Condensed-matter physics is the study of substances in their solid state. This includes the investigation of both crystalline solids in which the atoms are positioned on a repeating three-dimensional lattice, such as diamond, and amorphous materials in which atomic position is more irregular, like in glass.
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X-ray diffraction, phenomenon in which the atoms of a crystal, by virtue of their uniform spacing, cause an interference pattern of the waves present in an incident beam of X-rays. The atomic planes of the crystal act on the X-rays in exactly the same manner as does a uniformly ruled diffraction grating on a beam of light. A beam of X-rays contacts a crystal with an angle of incidence θ. It is reflected off the atoms of the crystal with the same angle θ. The X-rays reflect off atomic planes in the crystal that are a distance d apart. The X-rays reflecting off two different planes must interfere constructively to form an interference pattern; otherwise, the X-rays would interfere destructively and form no pattern. To interfere constructively, the difference in path length between the beams reflecting off two atomic planes must be a whole number (n) of wavelengths (λ), or nλ. This leads to the Bragg law nλ = 2d sin θ. By observing the interference pattern, the internal structure of the crystal can be deduced. See also Bragg law; Laue diffraction pattern.
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Ultrathin van der Waals materials and their heterostructures offer a simple, yet powerful platform for discovering emergent phenomena and implementing device structures in the two-dimensional limit. The past few years has pushed this frontier to include magnetism. These advances have brought forth a new assortment of layered materials that intrinsically possess a wide variety of magnetic properties and are instrumental in integrating exchange and spin–orbit interactions into van der Waals heterostructures. This Review Article summarizes recent progress in exploring the intrinsic magnetism of atomically thin van der Waals materials, manipulation of their magnetism by tuning the interlayer coupling, and device structures for spin- and valleytronic applications.
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In physics, statistical mechanics is a mathematical framework that applies statistical methods and probability theory to large assemblies of microscopic entities. It does not assume or postulate any natural laws, but explains the macroscopic behavior of nature from the behavior of such ensembles.Sometimes called statistical physics or statistical thermodynamics, its applications include many problems in the fields of physics, biology, chemistry, and neuroscience. Its main purpose is to clarify the properties of matter in aggregate, in terms of physical laws governing atomic motion.[1][2]Statistical mechanics arose out of the development of classical thermodynamics, a field for which it was successful in explaining macroscopic physical properties—such as temperature, pressure, and heat capacity—in terms of microscopic parameters that fluctuate about average values and are characterized by probability distributions.The founding of the field of statistical mechanics is generally credited to three physicists:Ludwig Boltzmann, who developed the fundamental interpretation of entropy in terms of a collection of microstate James Clerk Maxwell, who developed models of probability distribution of such statesJosiah Willard Gibbs, who coined the name of the field in 1884While classical thermodynamics is primarily concerned with thermodynamic equilibrium, statistical mechanics has been applied in non-equilibrium statistical mechanics to the issues of microscopically modeling the speed of irreversible processes that are driven by imbalances. Examples of such processes include chemical reactions and flows of particles and heat. The fluctuation–dissipation theorem is the basic knowledge obtained from applying non-equilibrium statistical mechanics to study the simplest non-equilibrium situation of a steady state current flow in a system of many particles.
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This important book focuses not only on the synthesis and fabrication of nanostructures and nanomaterials, but also includes properties and applications of nanostructures and nanomaterials, particularly inorganic nanomaterials. It provides balanced and comprehensive coverage of the fundamentals and processing techniques with regard to synthesis, characterization, properties, and applications of nanostructures and nanomaterials. Both chemical processing and lithographic techniques are presented in a systematic and coherent manner for the synthesis and fabrication of 0-D, 1-D, and 2-D nanostructures, as well as special nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes and ordered mesoporous oxides
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In classical physics and general chemistry, matter is any substance that has mass and takes up space by having volume.[1] All everyday objects that can be touched are ultimately composed of atoms, which are made up of interacting subatomic particles, and in everyday as well as scientific usage, "matter" generally includes atoms and anything made up of them, and any particles (or combination of particles) that act as if they have both rest mass and volume. However it does not include massless particles such as photons, or other energy phenomena or waves such as light or heat.[1]: 21 [2] Matter exists in various states (also known as phases). These include classical everyday phases such as solid, liquid, and gas – for example water exists as ice, liquid water, and gaseous steam – but other states are possible, including plasma, Bose–Einstein condensates, fermionic condensates, and quark–gluon plasma.[3]Usually atoms can be imagined as a nucleus of protons and neutrons, and a surrounding "cloud" of orbiting electrons which "take up space".[4][5] However this is only somewhat correct, because subatomic particles and their properties are governed by their quantum nature, which means they do not act as everyday objects appear to act – they can act like waves as well as particles and they do not have well-defined sizes or positions. In the Standard Model of particle physics, matter is not a fundamental concept because the elementary constituents of atoms are quantum entities which do not have an inherent "size" or "volume" in any everyday sense of the word. Due to the exclusion principle and other fundamental interactions, some "point particles" known as fermions (quarks, leptons), and many composites and atoms, are effectively forced to keep a distance from other particles under everyday conditions; this creates the property of matter which appears to us as matter taking up space.
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Renewable energy is energy derived from natural sources that are replenished at a higher rate than they are consumed. Sunlight and wind, for example, are such sources that are constantly being replenished. Renewable energy sources are plentiful and all around us.
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Glass Ceramics
Transparent and strong, glass insulates against heat and its transparency makes glass the ideal material for making windows\Glass ceramics are also more durable than other materials hence they are better suited for use in windows than plasticMost of the glass produced is soda-lime glass which is made by heating a mixture of limestone, sand and sodium carbonate (soda) until it meltsOn cooling it solidifies to form glassA variation is borosilicate glass which is made using sand and boron trioxide and has a higher melting point than soda-lime glass
Clay Ceramics
These are hardened materials that resist compressive forcesClay is a soft material dug up from the earth which hardens at high temperatures and when it is fired, produces a very strong and hard materialThis allows bricks to be used to build walls which withstand the weight and pressure of the material bearing downwards on itself
Polymers
Polymers are poor conductors of heat and electricity, hence they are good thermal and electrical insulatorsThese properties are extremely useful for insulating electrical wiring as they prevent electric shocks and overheating
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Nanophotonics or nano-optics is the study of the behavior of light on the nanometer scale, and of the interaction of nanometer-scale objects with light. It is a branch of optics, optical engineering, electrical engineering, and nanotechnology. It often involves dielectric structures such as nanoantennas, or metallic components, which can transport and focus light via surface plasmon polaritons. The term "nano-optics", just like the term "optics", usually refers to situations involving ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared light (free-space wavelengths from 300 to 1200 nanometers).
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Solid-state physics is the study of rigid matter, or solids, through methods such as solid-state chemistry, quantum mechanics, crystallography, electromagnetism, and metallurgy. It is the largest branch of condensed matter physics. Solid-state physics studies how the large-scale properties of solid materials result from their atomic-scale properties. Thus, solid-state physics forms a theoretical basis of materials science. Along with solid-state chemistry, it also has direct applications in the technology of transistors and semiconductors.
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Superfluidity is a characteristic property of a fluid having zero viscosity and able to flow without any loss of kinetic energy. Superconductivity is a quantum phenomenon where certain materials exhibit a high conductivity at particular magnetic and temperature regimes. The key difference between superfluidity and superconductivity is that superfluidity is the flow of helium 4 atoms in a liquid whereas superconductivity is the flow of electron charge inside a solid.
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Computational physics is the study and implementation of numerical analysis to solve problems in physics.[1] Historically, computational physics was the first application of modern computers in science, and is now a subset of computational science. It is sometimes regarded as a subdiscipline (or offshoot) of theoretical physics, but others consider it an intermediate branch between theoretical and experimental physics - an area of study which supplements both theory and experiment.
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Quantum mechanics is a fundamental theory in physics that provides a description of the physical properties of nature at the scale of atoms and subatomic particles.[2]: 1.1  It is the foundation of all quantum physics including quantum chemistry, quantum field theory, quantum technology, and quantum information science.Classical physics, the collection of theories that existed before the advent of quantum mechanics, describes many aspects of nature at an ordinary (macroscopic) scale, but is not sufficient for describing them at small (atomic and subatomic) scales. Most theories in classical physics can be derived from quantum mechanics as an approximation valid at large (macroscopic) scale
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